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Grammatica
Clauses and linking A2 B1 B2

Relative clauses

Identify nouns or add extra information with who, which, that, whose, where, and comma use.

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Visuele uitleg

Relative clauses: attach a detail to a noun

MENTAL MODEL

        Which noun?
            ↓
[NOUN] + [link word] + [small statement about that noun]
            ↑
     link word points back to the noun

link word choice:
  who = person     which/that = thing
  whose = owner    where = place

Needed to identify the noun → no commas
I met a woman who speaks five languages.

Extra comment only → commas around the clause
The museum, which opened last year, is free.

Put the noun first and attach the relative clause immediately after it; use commas only when the clause is extra information.

Introduction

What relative clauses do

Relative clauses are mini-clauses attached to nouns. They identify a noun or add an extra note about it. They often begin with who, which, that, whose, or where. In I met a woman who speaks five languages, who speaks five languages tells us which woman. Relative clauses let you combine information without starting a new sentence. The main sentence still needs a clear structure around the relative clause: I met a woman.
Core Grammatica A2 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

I met a woman who speaks five languages.

A defining relative clause gives necessary information about a person.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

I met a woman
main_clause_start
The main clause introduces the noun.
who speaks five languages
relative_clause
The relative clause identifies which woman.
Leer als één geheel
Core pattern

Noun first, clause right after

Core pattern: noun + relative word + relative clause. Put the relative clause immediately after the noun it describes. For people, use who or that: She is the teacher who helped me. For things, animals, and ideas, use which or that: This is the app that tracks my spending. In everyday defining clauses, that is very common. A negative main clause works the same way: I don't want a job that takes all my weekends. Keep the noun and its clause close together.
Core Grammatica A2 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

She is the teacher who helped me.

Who is commonly used for people.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

the teacher
noun_phrase
The noun being described.
who helped me
relative_clause
A reusable who-clause for a person who did something.
Leer als één geheel
Core Grammatica A2 Woordenschat B1 Neutral

This is the app that tracks my spending.

That is common in defining clauses for things.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

the app
noun_phrase
The thing being identified.
that tracks my spending
relative_clause
A that-clause identifying what the app does.
Leer als één geheel
Negative Grammatica A2 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

I don't want a job that takes all my weekends.

A negative main clause does not change the relative-clause pattern.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

I don't want a job
negative_main_clause
The main clause is negative.
that takes all my weekends
relative_clause
The relative clause identifies the kind of job.
Leer als één geheel
Usage rules

Choosing who, which, that, whose, where

Choose the relative word by meaning. Who points to people; which points to things, animals, and ideas; that is often possible instead in defining clauses. Whose means belonging to someone or something: Do you know the student whose bike was stolen? Where points to a place and means in or at which: This is the cafe where we first met. Use which or that, not where, when the noun is not a place: The jacket which you bought looks warm. In non-defining clauses, prefer who or which, not that.
Question Grammatica B1 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

Do you know the student whose bike was stolen?

Whose means belonging to someone or something.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

Do you know the student
question_frame
The main question asks about a person.
whose bike was stolen
whose_relative_clause
Whose shows possession inside the relative clause.
Leer als één geheel
Core Grammatica A2 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

This is the cafe where we first met.

Where means in or at which for a place.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

the cafe
noun_phrase
The place being identified.
where we first met
where_relative_clause
Where introduces information about a place.
Leer als één geheel
Core Grammatica B1 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

The jacket which you bought looks warm.

Which can identify a thing in a defining clause.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

The jacket
noun_phrase
The thing being described.
which you bought
which_relative_clause
Which introduces a relative clause about a thing.
Leer als één geheel
Sentence xray

Subject or object inside the relative clause

Subject relatives and object relatives behave differently. In The man who called you is here, who is the subject of called, so it must stay. In The man you called is here, you is the subject inside the relative clause, and the man is the object; the object relative word has been omitted. The same is common with things in defining clauses: The report we discussed was short. If another subject follows the relative word, omission is often possible; if the relative word is the subject, keep it.
Core Grammatica A2 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

The man who called you is here.

When the relative word is the subject, it normally cannot be omitted.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

The man
noun_phrase
The person being described.
who called you
subject_relative_clause
Who is the subject of the action called.
Leer als één geheel
Core Grammatica B1 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

The man you called is here.

In defining object relatives, the relative word is often left out.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

The man
noun_phrase
The person being identified.
you called
object_relative_clause_without_pronoun
A defining object relative can omit who or that.
Leer als één geheel
Core Grammatica B1 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

The report we discussed was short.

Object relative omission also works with things.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

The report
noun_phrase
The thing being identified.
we discussed
object_relative_clause_without_pronoun
A zero relative clause identifying the report.
Leer als één geheel
Contrast

Defining or extra: comma logic

Defining relative clauses identify which noun you mean, so they do not use commas. My brother who lives in Leeds is a nurse suggests I have more than one brother and I mean the Leeds one. Non-defining relative clauses add extra information about an already clear noun, so they use commas. My brother, who lives in Leeds, is a nurse treats who lives in Leeds as a side note. In non-defining clauses, use who for people and which for things: The museum, which opened last year, is free. Do not use that after a comma, and do not omit the relative word there.
Contrast Grammatica B1 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

My brother who lives in Leeds is a nurse.

No commas mean the information is needed to identify the noun.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

My brother
noun_phrase
The noun being identified.
who lives in Leeds
defining_relative_clause
Without commas, the clause identifies which brother.
Leer als één geheel
Contrast Grammatica B1 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

My brother, who lives in Leeds, is a nurse.

Commas mark the relative clause as an extra note.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

My brother
noun_phrase
The noun is already clear.
who lives in Leeds
non_defining_relative_clause
With commas, the clause is extra information.
Leer als één geheel
Core Grammatica B1 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

The museum, which opened last year, is free.

Use which, not that, in a non-defining clause about a thing.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

The museum
noun_phrase
The thing being commented on.
which opened last year
non_defining_which_clause
Which adds non-essential information about a thing.
Leer als één geheel
Form variations

Omission, prepositions, and shorter forms

In defining object relatives, leaving out who, which, or that is often the most natural choice. Prepositions often stay at the end in speech and neutral writing: The colleague I sent the file to replied quickly. In formal writing, the preposition can move before whom or which: The colleague to whom I sent the file replied quickly. Some relative clauses become shorter adjective-like forms: People wearing blue badges can enter first means people who are wearing blue badges. Use these shorter forms when the meaning is clear; do not force them in every sentence.
Spoken Grammatica B2 Woordenschat B1 Neutral

The colleague I sent the file to replied quickly.

Prepositions often stay at the end in speech and neutral writing.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

The colleague
noun_phrase
The person being identified.
I sent the file to
object_relative_with_final_preposition
A natural object relative with the preposition at the end.
Leer als één geheel
Formal Grammatica B2 Woordenschat B1 Formal

The colleague to whom I sent the file replied quickly.

Moving the preposition before whom is formal.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

The colleague
noun_phrase
The person being identified.
to whom I sent the file
formal_preposition_relative
A formal relative clause with the preposition before whom.
Leer als één geheel
Core Grammatica B2 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

People wearing blue badges can enter first.

Some relative clauses can be shortened to adjective-like phrases.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

People
noun_phrase
The group being described.
wearing blue badges
reduced_relative_clause
A shorter form meaning who are wearing blue badges.
Leer als één geheel
Danger zone

Relative clauses are not questions

Relative words can look like question words, but a relative clause is not a question. A question can stand alone and uses question order: Where did we stay? A relative clause follows a noun and uses statement order: I remember the hotel where we stayed. Not: I remember the hotel where did we stay. Also avoid double pronouns: after who as a subject, do not add she or he again; after that or which as an object, do not add it again. What normally does not follow a noun as a relative word; use that or which instead.
Question Grammatica A2 Woordenschat A1 Neutral

Where did we stay?

This is a direct question, not a relative clause.

Corrected Grammatica B1 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

I remember the hotel where we stayed.

Use statement word order inside a relative clause.

Bouwstenen

Lees de zin in woordgroepen, niet woord voor woord.

I remember the hotel
main_clause_start
The main clause names the place.
where we stayed
where_relative_clause
A relative clause after a place uses statement word order.
Leer als één geheel
Mistake Grammatica B1 Woordenschat A2 Neutral

I remember the hotel where did we stay.

This incorrectly uses question word order inside the relative clause.

Summary

Practical checklist

Use this quick logic. First, name the noun. Second, decide whether the following information identifies it or only comments on it. Third, choose the relative word: who for people, which for things or ideas, that for defining information, whose for possession, and where for places. No comma means the information is needed; commas mean an extra note. In defining object relatives, the relative word can often disappear. Keep statement word order, keep the clause close to its noun, and keep that out of comma clauses.
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