Grandes rivalidades en la ciencia y la invención

by Vocafy Verificado

Inglés (Estados Unidos) C1 10 preguntas Science History & culture

Explora famosas rivalidades científicas, las ideas en juego y la diferencia entre la historia documentada y el mito popular.

1. 1. Elige la respuesta correcta.

   ¿Qué desafío práctico fue fundamental en la “war of currents”?

   As electric lighting spread, Edison's direct-current networks and Tesla's alternating-current inventions offered competing approaches to supplying growing cities.

   • Storing electricity in rechargeable batteries
   • Distributing electricity to homes and businesses
   • Sending coded messages through telegraph wires

   Piensa en lo que necesita una ciudad antes de que puedan funcionar sus luces eléctricas.

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   • Distributing electricity to homes and businesses

   La rivalidad giraba en torno a sistemas completos de suministro eléctrico, no simplemente a quién podía inventar una mejor bombilla.

2. 2. Elige la respuesta correcta.

   ¿Qué se obtiene al sumar los productos de la rapidez por cada intervalo de tiempo muy corto?

   The calculus developed by Newton and Leibniz can combine continuously changing quantities. For a car whose speed varies, each brief interval contributes a small amount to the journey's total.

   • The total distance traveled
   • The total amount of fuel burned
   • The total force produced by the engine

   La rapidez indica cuánta distancia se recorre por unidad de tiempo.

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   • The total distance traveled

   Este proceso es la integración: combinar pequeñas contribuciones para obtener un total acumulado.

3. 3. Elige la respuesta correcta.

   ¿Por qué fue útil la transformación del voltaje para la distribución de electricidad a larga distancia?

   For the same amount of electrical power, a higher transmission voltage allows a lower current. Lower current reduces heating losses in wires. Transformers made changing AC voltage practical.

   • Power could travel at low voltage without the heating losses associated with higher current.
   • Every appliance could receive the same high voltage used on transmission lines.
   • Power could travel at high voltage and be reduced to a suitable voltage near customers.

   El voltaje más adecuado para la transmisión no es necesariamente apropiado para el uso doméstico.

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   • Power could travel at high voltage and be reduced to a suitable voltage near customers.

   La capacidad de cambiar el voltaje dio a los sistemas de corriente alterna una importante ventaja práctica durante la rivalidad.

4. 4. Elige la respuesta correcta.

   ¿Qué le permitió hacer a la empresa de Westinghouse este acuerdo de licencia?

   Westinghouse licensed Tesla's patents, obtaining permission to use the inventions in commercial AC systems. Turning those inventions into working networks also required investment and engineering teams.

   • Claim that its own engineers had originally invented Tesla's patented designs
   • Use the patented technology under an agreement
   • Make the patented technology available to everyone without permission

   Tener permiso para usar un invento no es lo mismo que afirmar haberlo inventado.

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   • Use the patented technology under an agreement

   La concesión de licencias puede vincular el trabajo de un inventor con los recursos necesarios para incorporarlo al uso cotidiano.

5. 5. Elige la respuesta correcta.

   ¿Qué práctica de los museos abordaría mejor este problema en particular?

   The fossil rivalry between Cope and Marsh produced many discoveries. However, rushed descriptions sometimes assigned different names to specimens belonging to the same species.

   • Compare newly named specimens carefully with existing collections.
   • Assume that fossils from different dig sites must represent different species.
   • Decide whether a species is distinct based on the discoverer's reputation.

   Un nuevo lugar de descubrimiento no necesariamente implica una nueva especie.

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   • Compare newly named specimens carefully with existing collections.

   Los nombres científicos son hipótesis sobre la clasificación; una comparación cuidadosa puede revelar que dos nombres se refieren a la misma especie.

6. 6. Elige la respuesta correcta.

   ¿Qué dificultad química generó la disposición central de Pauling?

   During the race to explain DNA's structure, Linus Pauling proposed a three-stranded model with phosphate groups packed near its center. Under normal biological conditions, these groups carry negative charges, and like charges repel. Watson and Crick's rival model placed them on the outside.

   • Repulsion would draw the phosphate groups toward a shared center.
   • Negative charge would prevent the phosphate groups from interacting with water.
   • Repulsion would make the tightly packed core difficult to maintain.

   Considera qué ocurre cuando grupos que se repelen entre sí quedan muy juntos.

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   • Repulsion would make the tightly packed core difficult to maintain.

   Una estructura molecular propuesta debe ser compatible con la química conocida, no solo formar un modelo geométrico atractivo.

7. 7. Elige la respuesta correcta.

   ¿Qué descripción corresponde a este episodio?

   Wallace sent Darwin an essay explaining natural selection, a mechanism Darwin had also developed independently. Their work was presented together at a scientific meeting, complicating the familiar story of a simple race between rivals.

   • Darwin and Wallace had developed the theory through a shared research project.
   • Independent ideas were brought together in a joint scientific announcement.
   • Wallace withdrew his contribution so Darwin could announce the idea alone.

   Distingue cómo surgieron las ideas de cómo se anunciaron.

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   • Independent ideas were brought together in a joint scientific announcement.

   La competencia por el reconocimiento puede coexistir con la cooperación; Wallace defendió posteriormente la contribución de Darwin.

8. 8. Elige la respuesta correcta.

   ¿Qué relato respeta mejor tanto la cronología como el consenso histórico?

   Newton developed his calculus methods before Leibniz, but Leibniz published his account first. Historians generally regard their development of calculus as independent.

   • Both developed calculus independently, although development and publication occurred in different orders.
   • Leibniz's earlier publication establishes that Newton learned calculus from him.
   • Newton's earlier development establishes that Leibniz could not have reached similar ideas independently.

   Ser el primero en desarrollar una idea y el primero en publicarla son logros distintos.

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   • Both developed calculus independently, although development and publication occurred in different orders.

   Las disputas sobre la prioridad suelen resultar engañosas cuando la invención, la publicación y la influencia se tratan como si fueran lo mismo.

9. 9. Elige la respuesta correcta.

   ¿Qué establece la patente de Bell sin requerir una afirmación histórica adicional?

   Bell's lawyers filed a telephone patent application on the same day that Gray's lawyers filed a formal notice protecting a proposed telephone design. Bell later received a patent. A patent grants legal rights, but it does not automatically identify every contributor to an invention.

   • Gray's proposed design could not have contained any workable ideas.
   • Bell independently originated every technical feature used in early telephones.
   • Bell received legal protection for the invention covered by that patent.

   Distingue entre una decisión legal y una historia completa del desarrollo tecnológico.

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   • Bell received legal protection for the invention covered by that patent.

   Los derechos de patente y la originalidad histórica son cuestiones relacionadas, pero una no resuelve por completo la otra.

10. 10. Elige la respuesta correcta.

    ¿Cómo debería utilizarse este informe en un relato histórico?

    During the calculus priority dispute, a Royal Society inquiry favored Newton. Newton was the society's president and was heavily involved in preparing the report that supported his own position.

    • As conclusive proof of sole invention, since an official report cannot favor a participant
    • As evidence of the dispute, while accounting for Newton's influence on its conclusions
    • As proof that Leibniz invented calculus first, since a biased report must reach a false conclusion

    La falta de independencia no equivale a una prueba de que todas las conclusiones sean incorrectas.

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    • As evidence of the dispute, while accounting for Newton's influence on its conclusions

    Un conflicto de intereses limita la independencia de un informe; por sí solo, no demuestra que sus conclusiones sean falsas.